Quotations

• For a single page, use the abbreviation “p.” (e.g., p. 25, p. S41, p. e221).
• For multiple pages, use the abbreviation “pp.” and separate the page range with an en dash (e.g., pp. 34–36).
• If pages are discontinuous, use a comma between the page numbers (e.g., pp. 67, 72).
• If the work does not have page numbers, provide another way for the reader to locate the quotation.

This guidance is the same as in the 6th edition.

• Provide a heading or section name. It is okay to abbreviate a long or unwieldy heading or section name.

• Provide a paragraph number (count the paragraphs manually if they are not numbered).

• Provide a heading or section name in combination with a paragraph number.

Do not include Kindle location numbers with in-text citations. Instead, provide the page number (which is available in many Kindle books, especially those based on print editions) or use the methods described on this page to create a page number alternative.

Note that the name of the section or other part of the work will not necessarily appear in the reference list entry for the work. For example, if you cite a particular section of a webpage or website in the text, the reference list entry should be for the page you used, not for only that section of the page.

Audiovisual Works

To directly quote from an audiovisual work (e.g., audiobook, YouTube video, TED Talk, TV show), provide a time stamp for the beginning of the quotation in place of a page number.

Works With Canonically Numbered Sections

To directly quote from material with canonically numbered sections (e.g., religious or classical works), use the name of the book, chapter, verse, line, and/or canto instead of a page number.

For plays, cite the act, scene, and line(s). In the following example, “1.3.36–37” refers to Act 1, Scene 3, Lines 36 and 37.

If any incorrect spelling, punctuation, or grammar in the source might confuse readers, insert the word “[sic],” italicized and in brackets, immediately after the error in the quotation.

Nowak (2019) wrote that “people have an obligation to care for there [sic] pets” (p. 52).

This guidance is the same as in the 6th edition.

Changes to a Quotation Not Requiring Explanation

Some changes can be made to direct quotations without alerting readers:

• The first letter of the first word in a quotation may be changed to an uppercase or a lowercase letter to fit the context of the sentence in which the quotation appears.
• Some punctuation marks at the end of a quotation may be changed to fit the syntax of the sentence in which the quotation appears, as long as meaning is not changed (e.g., it might alter meaning to change a period to a question mark, depending on how the sentence is written).
• Single quotation marks may be changed to double quotation marks and vice versa.
• Footnote or endnote number callouts can be omitted.
• Any other changes (e.g., italicizing words for emphasis or omitting words) must be explicitly indicated.

Changes to a Quotation Requiring Explanation

Other changes require you to alert reader to the change:

• Use an ellipsis to indicate that you have omitted words within a quotation (e.g., to shorten a sentence or tie two sentences together).
• Either type three periods with spaces around each ( . . . ) or use the ellipsis character created by your word processing program when you type three periods in a row ( … ), with a space before and after.
• Use four periods—that is, a period plus an ellipsis (. … )—to show a sentence break within omitted material, such as when a quotation includes the end of one sentence and the beginning of another sentence.
• Use square brackets, not parentheses, to enclose material such as an addition or explanation you have inserted in a quotation.
• If you want to emphasize a word or words in a quotation, use italics. Immediately after the italicized words, insert “emphasis added” within square brackets as follows: [emphasis added].

If the quotation contains an error, it is necessary to indicate the error.

This guidance has been expanded from the 6th edition.

• Present a quotation of fewer than 40 words in quotation marks within the text.
• Present a quotation of 40 words or more as a block quotation.

When quoting research participants, abide by the ethical agreements regarding confidentiality and/or anonymity between you and your participants. Take extra care to obtain and respect participants’ consent to have their information included in your report. You may need to assign participants a pseudonym, obscure identifying information, or present information in the aggregate (strategies for adequately disguising materials are further described in Sections 1.14 and 1.19 of the Publication Manual; see also Section 1.15 regarding confidentiality in qualitative studies).

Participant “Julia,” a 32-year-old woman from California, described her experiences as a new mother as “simultaneously the best and hardest time of my life.” Several other participants agreed, describing the beginning of parenthood as “joyful,” “lonely,” and “intense.” Julia and the other participants completed interviews in their homes.

Agreements regarding confidentiality and/or anonymity may also extend to other sources related to your methodology (e.g., quoting a school policy document when conducting a case study at a school). These sources would not be cited in text or listed in the reference list because doing so would compromise the school’s confidentiality and/or anonymity. However, it may be possible to discuss information from these sources in the text if the material is suitably disguised.

Our study was conducted at a high school in Atlanta, Georgia. School administrators provided documents containing students’ average test scores and the percentage of students receiving free or reduced-price lunch. We used these data to contextualize the impact of our intervention.